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Architecture

Since ancient times, the Mongols and their ancestors have lived for the most part in felt-covered yurts, with some segments of the population residing in permanent settlements. The early settlements found in Mongolia can generally be classified as military, administrative, commercial, or cultural-religious in function, with some settlements serving a combination of functions - as in the case of Xar Balgas, capital of the Uighur State; Karakorum, capital of the Mongol Empire; and the more recent towns of Uliastai, Xovd and Örgöö (Ulaanbaatar). Mongolian architecture can be classified as residential, sacred, regal or memorial.

Monuments of early Central Asian nomadic peoples

The archaeological remains of settlements dating from the Xünnü, Sianbe, Toba, Türkic, Uighur and Xitan state periods generally include palaces surrounded by a protective walls, and accompanied by military-administrative sums with watchtowers. A number of Xünnü-era walled settlements have been discovered in recent years, including Gua Dov, located in Bayanzhargalan sum of Töv aimag, near the Xerlen River; Öndör Dov in Bayandelger sum; Berxiin Dörvölzhin and Terelzhiin Dörvölzhin in Möngönmor't sum; Bayanbulag in Nomgon sum of Ömnögov' aimag; and the Ivolga ruins by the Selenge River, near Ulan-Ude in Russia.

Although there is some historical evidence that the Türks constructed palaces and cities during their period in power, no physical traces of such structures have been identified. Nonetheless, two important Türkic memorial complexes exist in the territory of Mongolia - the monuments of Xöshöö Caidam in Arxangai aimag, which include large memorials to Bilge Xan and the military hero Kül-Tegin; and the monuments to the Türkic Xan's advisor Tonyokuk, situated near the town of Nalaix.

The most significant Uighur-era architectural remains are those found at Xar Balgas and Baibalyk. Xar Balgas, the capital of the Uighur State, was situated near to what is now Xarxorin sum centre, and occupied an area of more than 50 square kilometres. The ruin contains traces of what was presumed to be the royal palace, surrounded by an earthen wall measuring 600 x 600 metres, and which was at least ten metres in height. There are also remains of what appear to have been rows of stupas running along the exterior of this wall.

It is recorded in historical sources that the Xitan constructed towns with military defences throughout the territory of Mongolia, of which approximately ten have been identified by archaeologists. These include Chin Tolgoi Balgas and Xar Buxyn Balgas in Dashinchilen sum of Bulgan aimag, Xerlen Bars Xot in Cagaan ovoo sum of Dornod aimag, and Züün Xerem in Mörön sum of Xentii aimag. The urban planning of the Xitan mainly preserved the traditions of the Türks and Uighurs, although Xitan-era towns are characterized by the construction of high towers along the protective earthen walls, which would measure 1-6 metres in breadth, and by the introduction of drinking-water or irrigation canals within the walled town. Outside the town walls were situated residential and artisanal sums.

One of the best-preserved Xitan-era monuments is Xerlen Bars Xot, which contains two giant stupas, measuring approximately five and seven stories in height respectively, as well as the remains of four stone buildings within the walls and a further ten buildings outside the walls. In terms of their style, the two large brick stupas resemble similar structures found in India; until the 1940s large sacred images could be seen on their walls. The smaller of the two stupas collapsed in the 1940s.

It is clear from the evidence of various historical sources that the construction of walled towns and settlements in the territory of Mongolia continued uninterrupted following the collapse of the Xitan state. Both Rashid ad-Din and Marco Polo noted that Van Xan Tooril, for example, had constructed his own palace and settlement.

Mongolian Imperial Architecture

There is much evidence that Karakorum, capital of the Mongol Empire established by Chingis Xaan, was a highly-developed city that was home to a diverse mix of Asians and Europeans, and that served as the military, political, commercial, scientific and cultural centre of a vast empire. Chingis Xaan decreed in 1220 that the town of "Qorum" should become the capital of Greater Mongolia; construction of the capital was undertaken in 1228-1241, being completed during the reign of Chingis's successor, Ögedei Xaan. Archaeological work conducted in the ruin - located in what is now Xarxorin sum in Övörxangai aimag - has suggested that the city occupied an area of 8 x 8 kilometres, and that its centre was surrounded by a thick earthen wall measuring over 600 metres in diameter. Aerial photographs of the site clearly show the presence of a network of streets, with wide avenues leading to each of the four city gates.

The French emissary William of Rubruck left a detailed description of the city and of the Xaan's palace, in the entry of which was a great silver tree-shaped fountain, used for serving different types of beverages to the Xaan's guests during periods of festivities. Rubruck noted that Karakorum housed twelve different places of worship representing different faiths. At each of the city gates were situated workshops, markets and military barracks. Although Xubilai Xaan moved the Mongolian capital to Beijing in 1260, Karakorum remained a significant political centre in Mongolia until the end of the 14th century.

Further examples of architecture from the Mongol Empire period can be seen in the various palaces constructed for Chingis Xaan and his successors, including the Aurga Palace of Chingis Xaan; Mönx Xaan's Palace; various palaces occupied by Ögedei Xaan, most notably the Gegee Cagaan Palace; the town of Kundii, near Chita in Russia, founded by Yesünxe Mergen; Xar Xot, located near the border with China; the town of Shandu (Xanadu) established by Xubilai Xaan; and Xubilai's new imperial capital of Dadu, which has become Beijing. Following the collapse of the Yüan dynasty most of these palaces and their surrounding settlements were abandoned or went into decline; little remains of many of these monuments today other than heaps of earth and rubble. The once-great city of Karakorum suffered twice at the hands of Chinese invaders, and was finally destroyed completely during Mongolia's civil war.

Post-Imperial Architecture and Settlements: The Buddhist Influence

The construction of permanent settlements enjoyed a revival in the 16th century; perhaps the best example of architecture from this period is Cagaan Balgasof the Xalx prince Cogt Xun Taizh, constructed near the Tuul River in 1601-1617. Built over top of an existing foundation, the walls are made of stone in the lower half and brick in the upper half. In addition to the wall and palace can be found traces of temples and residential buildings, which appear to have been decorated with brightly-coloured glazed ceramic ornaments.

Architecture from the Manchu and Bogd Xaan periods was influenced by three major factors. First, the adoption of Buddhism in 1577 as Mongolia's official state religion, and the subsequent policy to transform Mongolia into a religious-oriented society, led to the predominance of sacred architecture in the 17th to 19th centuries. Second, the Manchus' consolidation of control over Mongolia through the establishment of military and administrative outposts ultimately led to the development of major commercial and cultural centres such as Xovd and Uliastai. Third, some of the princes governing over Mongolia's four aimags in this period had palaces constructed for their own private use; these included Sain Noyon Xan Dondovdorzh and Zasagt Xan Gombosüren. Although the construction of such palaces never became widespread among the princes, various high-ranking Buddhist authorities - including the Bogd Zhavzandamba - occupied palace complexes, several of which remain in existence today, as in the case of the Winter Palace of the Bogd Xaan.

Initially Buddhist rituals were conducted inside specially-arranged yurts, later in small wooden temples designed to permit their being dismantled and moved, and finally in large, permanent monastic structures. The Mongolian Buddhist monastic architectural tradition of this period began with the establishment of Erdene Zuu Monastery by Abtai Sain Xan in 1586, and resulted in the construction of more than 4000 temples, stupas and other religious structures by the early 20th century, including approximately 750 monasteries. While most of these structures have now been lost, there are still a handful of monasteries which remain at least partly intact: Erdene Zuu, Amarbayasgalant, Gandantegchenling, Zayayn Xüree, Geser Temple, Dambadarzhaalin Monastery, Tövxen Monastery, the Choizhin Lama's temple, and the former ger-shaped wooden temples of Ix Xüree, to name a few.

The development of a true Mongolian architectural tradition can be seen through the works of Mongolian writers, such as the Süm dugan barix ba zasax yoson (Rules for Constructing and Repairing Temples) and Aaxar Shaaxar of Corzh Agvaanceren, and the Biye zarlig setgeliin shüteenii tig xemzheenii ündsen bai tailbar züült, cecgiin üzesgelent erxi (Basic and Derived Interpretive Annotations to the Body, Command and Mind, and Beautiful Prayer Beads of the Flower) of Sümbe Xamba Ishbalzhir.

It was common for Mongolian-style temples to retain the general layout of the nomadic yurt. Öndör Gegeen Zanabazar set an example for this by developing plans for temple buildings that reflected the structure of the yurt. There are also many ger-shaped wooden temples, of which the Ex Dagina (dakini) temple and Erxem Toiny Vangaa in Ulaanbaatar remain standing. Mongolian-style temples can essentially be divided into three types: (1) round temples with dome-shaped or conical roofs, (2) square temples with dome-shaped roofs, and (3) polygonal temples built within the diameter of a circle, with dome-shaped or conical roofs. There is also a rare example of a perfectly round, ger-shaped brick temple found within the walls of the Choizhin Lama Monastery Museum

20th-Century Architecture and Urban Planning

A new era in Mongolian architecture began following Mongolia's independence from China in 1911, and in particular with the victory of the People's Revolution of 1921. For the first time in Mongolia's history, the national government adopted a systematic construction policy, and sought to introduce scientific principles of architecture and planning. The period from the 1920s through to the 1940s saw the construction of public schools, hospitals and cultural centres both in the capital city and in all rural centres. The majority of these early socialist buildings were log structures with metal roofs, equipped with stove heating. But at the same time, a number of new buildings were erected using new plans, materials and technologies imported from Russia, generally in a constructivist style; these included the Mongol Trans office, the Office of Interior Defence, the National Bank, the "Bömbögör Nogoon" Theatre, the Radio and Post Office, and the building for what is now the University of Education. The first industrial buildings were also constructed in this period, including the "Azh Üildveriin Kombinat" ("Production Factory").

The decades from the 1940s to the 1960s marked an intensification of construction. An Ulaanbaatar Improvement Plan was implemented from 1940-1949, followed by the First General Development Plan for Ulaanbaatar in 1952, and a twenty-year development plan for Ulaanbaatar in 1954. These plans served as a model for construction and urban planning not only in the capital city, but also for the construction of new towns and settlements in the countryside. In this period Ulaanbaatar made the transition from a small town characterized by monasteries, small business lots and narrow streets to a large capital connected to international transportation networks, serving as the political, economic and cultural centre of Mongolia. Many of Ulaanbaatar's major landmarks were constructed during these years - including Süxbaatar Square, the Parliament building, the National Academic Opera and Dance Theatre, the Eldev-Ochir Cinema (now the Mongolian Stock Exchange), the National University of Mongolia, the Altai Hotel (now City Hall), the State Central Library, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the National Sports Stadium, the Ulaanbaatar Hotel, the State Department Store, and the Presidential palace at Ix Tenger. Meanwhile the Office of Architecture and Planning was expanded into the National Institute of Architecture, and trained an increasing number of architects and construction engineers.

Since the 1960s Mongolian architectural organizations have produced development plans for more than 300 towns and settlements. These plans were used for the construction of modern aimag centres, the new towns of Darxan, Erdenet and Choibalsan, and administrative, cultural, education, health, social and industrial facilities in over 300 sum centres, in addition to an expanding network of roads and bridges. Among the buildings constructed in this period were the Polytechnical Institute, the Bayangol Hotel, the Central Palace of the Mongolian Industrial Union, the Wedding Palace, the Central Cultural Palace and the Lenin Museum, as well as industrial facilities for the production of flour, carpets, milk, shoes and the like, and large numbers of apartment buildings.

Although it can be said that construction techniques improved and that the pace of urban development increased significantly during the socialist era, it is also true that large numbers of unattractive, identical buildings were constructed throughout the country. Nevertheless, Mongolian architects have made attempts to plan buildings and communities that reflect their country's specific natural and cultural conditions. Examples of more unique structures include the Palace of Peace and Friendship, the Hunting Palace, the Revolutionary and Lenin Museums, the Central Cultural Palace, the Wedding Palace and the Nairamdal Children's Resort.

The face of Mongolian architecture has changed considerably since 1990, with the introduction of new resources and ideas resulting from Mongolia's opening up to the outside world. Recent construction has been marked by a mix of eastern and western styles, the use of new building materials and techniques, and an increasing diversity in the urban landscape.