Mongolian Empire
The unification of the Mongol tribes by Chingis Xaan in 1206, resulting in the establishment of the Ix Mongol or "Greater Mongolia" state, is considered one of the most significant events in the history of the Mongols. Prior to this date the Mongolian tribes had not organized under a central leadership, but remained divided into several small states and many aimags, fraught with rivalry, dispersed throughout a vast territory stretching from Hyangai in the east to the Altai Mountains in the west, and from the Great Wall of China in the south to Lake Baikal in the north. This disunity left the Mongols in a state of political vulnerability, and remained an obstacle to the establishment of a fully-developed economy.
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Ascent to Power of Temüzhin
At the end of 12th century, the young tribal leader Temüzhin - who was later to become known as Chingis Xaan (Genghis Khan) - rose to prominence thanks to his political and military talents, and began working towards the unification of the Mongols into a single state. Born in 1162 as the elder son of Yesüxei, a kinsman of the Xamag Mongol clan, Temüzhin had lost his father as a young child, endured poverty, suffered attacks from enemy clans and personally experienced the very meaning of violence.
In order to reinforce his position Temüzhin selected Togoril, chief of the Xeredei clan, as his ally. His immediate goal was to restore the Xamag Mongol clan, which had disintegrated after the death of its leader, Temüzhin's father. In the 1180s Temüzhin joined forces with Togoril and Zhamuxa to invade the Mergeds, reclaiming his wife Börte along with a number of other captives. Temüzhin later succeeded at attracting the allegiance of a large portion of Zhadran aimag, which had previously been a part of the Xamag Mongol state. In 1189 Temüzhin restored Xamag Mongolia and was invested as its Xaan at a ceremony at Xar Zürxnii Xöx Nuur, being granted the title "Chingis Xaan" (Genghis Xan).
Following the restoration of the Xamag Mongol state, Chingis pursued the objective of unifying all Mongols under his own rule, with the support of Togoril and others. Despite encountering many obstacles, Chingis Xaan ultimately reached his goal in 1206, proclaiming the new state of Ix Mongol or "Greater Mongolia".
Administration of the Empire
Chingis Xaan's first priority was to consolidate the administration of his state. The total population was organized into 95 units of approximately one thousand, known as "myangat", with the entire state divided into three main parts, known as the Central Tümen, Western Tümen and Eastern Tümen. A myangat unit comprised approximately ten aravt units, while a tümen was made up of 10 myangat. This system was not completely original, as a decimal administrative structure is also known to have been in place at the time of the Xünnü; yet it completely replaced the existing tribal-based administrative structure, and allowed the Great Xaan to consolidate his control of the population and its military resources, particularly through the appointment of his loyal followers and friends as commanders of the units of hundreds and thousands. This decimal system was optimal for managing nomadic animal husbandry, as each myangat unit was able to regulate the migrations of its constituent population. In addition, myangat commanders acted as public officials responsible for the distribution of pastures, collection of state taxes and the like. Yet the main advantage of this structure was its ability to ensure the consolidated control over the nation's economic and military resources, as well as permitting their rapid deployment.
The myangat were classified according to two different groups - "inner" and "outer". The inner units consisted of xishigten soldiers, who made up the stronghold of Ix Mongol's state power and were responsible for protecting the state, while the external units were made up of common herders. The xishigtens were originally a group of ten thousand, including eight thousand Torguud and two thousand Xevtüül and Xorchin Mongols. Chingis Xaan recruited the sons of myangat, zuut and aravt unit commanders as xishigten soldiers, making the myangat and zuut units responsible for providing for all the needs of the xishigten under their jurisdiction. These elite soldiers served in peacetime as palace guards and bodyguards for the Xaan, while in times of war they made up the core combat force. No one but Chingis Xaan had the authority to command these soldiers.
Chingis Xaan also oversaw the establishment of an advisory council known as the "Council of Wise Men" and the Ix Xuraldai or "Grand Assembly", responsible for deciding on issues of paramount importance such as the declaration of war, the election of a Xaan and so on. The main laws of Ix Mongol were codified in the form of the Yasa, containing important provisions governing the privileges of the Xaan and the state, the election of the Xaan, the convening of the Ix Xuraldai assembly, foreign relations, citizens' rights and duties, military duties, hunting rules, finances and taxation, family relations and inheritance.
The establishment of the Ix Mongol state accelerated the formation of a Mongolian nation, with a common cultural identity. In addition, Ix Mongol became a staging point for the launching of military, political and economic actions and policies spanning across two continents, Asia and Europe, by Chingis Xaan and his successors.
Following the establishment of the Ix Mongol state, Chingis Xaan waged a series of major wars in both Asia and Europe, aiming to maintain and enhance the external security of the newly established Mongolian state by enlarging its territory into a powerful empire, and to amplify the political and economic power of Mongolian leaders.
The initial targets of the Mongols' attacks were their existing enemies, notably the Xi Xia state of the Tangut, the Zhürchid Altan Uls and the kingdom of the Xwarezm-Shah. In 1205 Chingis Xaan attacked the Tangut Xi Xia kingdom, causing some of the defeated Kereits to flee, but the campaign was abandoned prematurely; a further conquest effort was undertaken in 1207, at which time the Mongols were quickly able to lay siege to many Tangut cities and fortresses. Following his unsuccessful efforts to form an alliance with the Zhurchid Altan Uls, the Tangut Xaan finally conceded defeat to Chingis Xaan, offering a great wealth of gifts and pledging to pay annual tributes to Ix Mongol. In 1209, Chingis Xaan subjugated the Uighurs of eastern Turkistan through diplomatic means.
Conquest of the Altan Uls
In 1210 Altan Uls sent an envoy to Chingis Xaan requesting that he recognize the suzerainty of their Xaan, confirming their lack of recognition of Ix Mongol's independence. This provocation, combined with Chingis's desire to liberate his fellow Xitans from the Zhurchid yoke, led the Mongol Xaan to attack the Zhurchid Altan Uls in March 1211. The Zhurchin Xaan was aware of the military strength of the Mongolian army, and therefore endeavoured to gain time under the pretext of a peaceful treaty, but to no avail. The legendary commander Zhebe stormed the Chuulalt Gate and took the port of Cavchaal, placing the Altan Uls in a critical situation; Chingis Xaan's soldiers then annihilated an army of 30-thousand Zhurchin soldiers in what is now Hebei aimag of China, and in the following year conquered numerous fortresses and cities in that area. Yehlü-Luge, leader of the Xitans under Chinese rule, joined Chingis Xaan in fighting the Zhürchid. Altan Uls finally sought help from the Tanguts, but the latter were unable to be of assistance due to their status as vassals of the Mongols. In 1213 Chingis Xaan divided his great army into three units and pressed forward into Altan Uls, laying siege to its capital in Beijing. The trapped Zhurchin Xaan finally surrendered by offering his daughter, along with 500 boys and girls, to the Mongols, accepting the status of vassal state.
Following this, Chingis Xaan sent an envoy to Sung-dynasty China to communicate his desire for peace. But the Zhürchid detained this envoy, moved their capital to Kaifeng further to the south, and undertook clandestine military preparations. Chingis retaliated by launching a new campaign against the Zhurchin Altan Uls, leading to the siege and eventual capture of Beijing. Yet at this point Chingis returned home with some of his troops, leaving Muxulai to continue the conquest of Altan Uls; this sudden retreat was motivated by the urgent need to mount an assault in the Middle East.
The Mongols under Chingis Xaan achieved great military success due to a variety of factors - including their considerable mobility, constant vigilance, high level of organization and tactical sophistication. The Mongols followed a strategy of isolating their enemies and preventing them from joining forces, in addition to making full use of the military and economic resources of their subjugated and vassal states in the fight against their nearby enemies.
Invasion of Khwarezm
Prior to the invasion of Khwarezm Chingis Xaan attacked Qara Kidan (the western Liao dynasty). Prince Xüchülüg, son of Naiman Dayan Xan and a sworn enemy of Chingis, had taken refuge in Qara Kidan, overthrown their king, gathered strength and established relations with Xwarezm in order to undertake hostile activities directed against Chingis Xaan. In 1218 Chingis Xaan sent two tümens under the command of General Zhebe to defeat Qara Kidan, spreading the word among the local people that the Mongol army was prepared to cooperate with them to restore order and eradicate pillaging, that they would not harm civilians and that they would respect the local people's freedom of religion. This final point contributed to the success of Zhebe's propaganda campaign, as most of the population of Qara Kidan was Muslim, unlike Xüchülüg and the other foreigners who controlled their state. The subjugation of Qara Kidan was swift, and brought the Mongols into a direct confrontation with Khwarezm.
The Khwarezm region was situated in the valley of the Amu Darya River, covering the present territories of Afghanistan, Bucharest and western Iran, along the trade route linking China, India and the Mediterranean. Chingis Xaan led a force of Mongol troops into Khwarezm in 1219 to retaliate for the detention and murder of a trade caravan of his own envoy, which had consisted of 450 traders and 500 camels, in the town of Otrar. Over the course of the next five years Chingis's forces succeeded at capturing Otrar, Benakent, Hodgent, Bucharest, Zaridk, Nur, Zareshan, Urgench, Samarkand, Balh, Merb and Nisha-Pur, ending in the total subjugation of Khwarezm. Muhammad's son Jalal al-Din fought bravely to the end against the invading Mongols; though with a smaller force he was able to defeat the 30-thousand Mongol warriors commanded by Shixixutag, he could not withstand the grand army led by Chingis Xaan. He eventually escaped to India by crossing the Indus River on horseback, finally reaching Persia and continuing his struggle until 1231. Chingis Xaan was highly impressed by Jalal al-Din, whom he saw as a great warrior, and encouraged his own soldiers to follow the example of the latter.
In 1220 a detachment of Mongolian soldiers led by Zhebe and Sübeedei reached Azerbaijan, entering Georgia in the following year and defeating King Lasha's army of 60-thousand soldiers. After this they crossed the Caucasus Mountains; in 1223 they encountered and routed Russian forces on the banks of Xalx River, then invaded Bulgaria before returning home.
Cultural and Social Significance of the Mongolian Empire
Stretching across the continents of Asia and Europe, the Great Mongolian Empire served as the backdrop for great political, economic and cultural transformations. The establishment of the horse relay system (örtöö), a network covering the whole territory of the Empire, was the most expeditious transportation and communications system at that time in the world. Western and eastern traders, adventurers, missionaries, politicians and soldiers travelled by way of this relay system, bringing the relations between Asia and Europe to an unprecedented level. At the same time, new maritime routes were being discovered, permitting European traders to reach India and China through the maritime ports of Persian Gulf, and Russian merchants to reach Italy, the Mediterranean and the Middle East via the Sea of Azov. As the exchange of goods between the east and west increased, so did the use of coins and banknotes, and new commercial cities and ports emerged. Under the aegis of the Mongol Xaans a number of new cities and scientific observatories were founded. The splendid monuments built during the reigns of Il Xan Ölziit (1304-1311) and Abu (1316-1325) are still considered outstanding examples of Persian architecture.
 | In commemoration of the legacy and teachings of His Holiness Dulduit Danzanravzhaa Fifth Wrathful Noble Xutagt of the Great Gobi (1803-1856) I did not overbearingly sophize Nor preach with pride and arrogance But having found a sense in this world Spoke the truth of my dear heart. |   |