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Zungaria
The Zu'u'ngar ("East Arm") kingdom was established and administered by the Oirad Mongols or "forest people" towards the end of the 13th century. In the 12th and early 13th centuries the Oirads occupied a territory bordering that of the hunters and trappers who lived in the taiga between lakes Baikal and Xo'vsgo'l, and the Mongol herders of the steppe. When Chingis Xaan's eldest son Zu'chi came to make the forest dwellers subjects of the new Mongol state in 1207, he was welcomed wholeheartedly by the Oirad Xutuga Bexi chiefs; in appreciation of this act Chingis Xaan established ties of kinship with the Oirads by arranging marriages between his daughter Cheixen and Xutuga's eldest son, and between Zuchi's daughter Xoluixan and Xutuga's next son To'ro'lch. Chingis Xaan established four independent myangat (thousandth) divisions among the Oirad, included in the western wing of the Ix Mongol state, with the Xutuga Bexis as their commanders, since which time the Oirads became known as the "Four Oirads". In the second half of the 13th century the Oirads conquered the neighbouring areas of Zavxan, Xu'ngu'i Gol and the eastern Altai. Following the collapse of the Yu'an Empire the western Oirads fell briefly under the rule of Dogolon To'mo'r Xaan; however most of the Oirads had closer relations with Zu'u'ngar Mongolia.
At the beginning of the 15th century, Oirad princes such as Maxamud, Batbold and Taivan gained strength and endeavoured to pursue a more autonomous policy. Ming dynasty China initially sent troops to assist the Oirads, but in 1414 they changed their allegiance and helped the Zu'u'ngar Mongols to defeat the Oirads. Despite their defeat, however, the Oirads continued to gather strength. Meanwhile some changes occurred in their demographic and settlement patterns from the middle of the 15th century: first, there was an influx of Baats, Ar Mongols, Asud, Barga and Buryats; and second, the Oirads themselves began to migrate to the west of the Zavxan River, in the area of the Altai Mountains, Erchisiin Ex, Barxo'l, Xami and the northwest Ordos region.
In the 16th century the Oirads established a distinctive body known as the chuulgan, a consultative organ of the Oirad rulers. The Oirad military was basically under the command of this assembly; but when necessary, soldiers could be commanded by specially appointed individuals, who could be given titles such as o'rlo'g or xoshuuch, which in some cases were hereditary.
One of the most significant events of the 17th century was the migration of the majority of the Torguud, Xoshuud and Do'rvo'd tribes towards the areas of the Volga River, western Siberia, Xo'x Nuur and Tibet. This resulted in greater influence for the Coros people and their leaders, who constituted a majority among the remaining Altai population. Coros leader Erdenebaatar did not break the ties with the emigrants, but indeed attempted to involve them in Oirad assemblies and allegiances. Under Erdenebaatar and his heir Senge, the Oirads' internal strife was appeased, foreign relations became relatively stable, new temples and settlements were constructed, agriculture took hold, and foreign traders began to do business among them. In 1640 a joint Mongol-Oirad assembly adopted the Ix Caaz (Supreme Law), which proclaimed Buddhism as the official state religion and abolished shamanism.
The poisoning of Senge by his younger step-brothers Cecen and Zodov in 1671 precipitated the return to Mongolia of Senge's full-blooded younger brother Galdan (1644-1697), who had been studying in Tibet. Upon his return the energetic Galdan successfully reunited the Oirad, himself taking the throne of Zu'u'ngar in 1676. One of Galdan's first actions was to reform the administrative system in 1678, banning unauthorized transfers from one otog to another in what became known as the Galdan xuntaizhiin zaxia zarlig (Missive Decree of Prince Galdan). In addition, Galdan took measures to propagate Buddhism in his territory, with the establishment of Gagba and Lamarim zhas, as well as various other temples and monasteries. Galdan and his successors Ceveenravdan and Galdanceren gallantly struggled to defend the independence of the Oirads, developing relations with and sending numerous trade missions to Russia, Tibet, China, Manchuria and some Central Asian countries.
Under Galdan's rule Zu'u'ngar began to use melted copper coins for the first time. The Oirad kingdom under Galdan Xaan possessed three distinct state seals bearing inscriptions in Tibetan, Tod Mongolian and Square Mongolian scripts, used for different purposes. While the Xaan's seal was made of gold, those below the rank of zaisan (tribal or clan chief) used seals made of silver, copper, iron or tin.
The Oirads preserved the traditional administrative decimal system of 13th and 14th centuries, but this became weakened as princes with increasing economic power sought greater independence. In the early 15th century the Oirads finally broke apart into several large, relatively independent territories, likely corresponding to the earlier four tu'men divisions, each of which was named after its principal aimag. These four territories were not interrelated by blood so much as by geography.
By the late 16th century Oirad Mongolia consisted of 40 xoshuu, divided into western and eastern flanks. The western Oirad region included five Xoshuud xoshuu, five Torguud xoshuu, five Xoid xoshuu, and five Zhired xoshuu; the eastern region comprised ten Coros xoshuu, five Shiras xoshuu, and five Maxas xoshuu. The size, population and economic strength of these xoshuu were not equal; nonetheless, the xoshuu was the principal unit of land ownership. The Coros, who ruled the eastern Oirad region, re-established an Oirad kingdom named Zu'u'ngar.
The Oirad were for the most part nomadic livestock herders, but also practised agriculture to a limited extent. During the reign of Erdenebaatar the Oirad are known to have cultivated different types of grains and vegetables, expanding their production under Ceveenravdan and Galdanceren. The Zu'u'ngar princes profited from their control of cities such as Aksu, Yarkend, Kashgar and Turfan by summoning farmers from these agricultural regions to undertake cultivation in the areas of the Ili, Bor Tal, Cagaan Uls and Erchis Rivers. The Oirad themselves also began farming wheat, millet, barley and other crops. A separate otog of approximately 3000 families, consisting mainly of people relocated from farming areas, was set up to grow wheat and vegetables for the Xaan. In addition to animal husbandry and agriculture, handicrafts production was especially strong in Zu'u'ngar, encompassing the production of armour, helmets, swords, spearheads, weapons and arrows. Swedish and Russian prisoners were set to work making three types of firearms. Copper and silver household implements and ornaments were also produced.
The Zu'u'ngar Xaan's subjects were grouped into otogs, each of which had its own name. There were 12 otog in the 17th century, but by the middle of the 18th century the number of these had doubled to 24. Each otog was governed by one to three Zaisans, depending on its population and the size of its territory, who were responsible for collecting taxes and transferring these to the Xaan. In the early 18th century a "buuchin otog" was established, consisting of 1000 families of Xoton and Turfanian blacksmiths engaged in the production of weapons and ammunitions. Cerenravdan also summoned Russians to produce handicrafts, process skins, and manufacture paper and woollen cloth. There is also reference to an otog of 3000 families of Urad (whose name means "artisans"), in charge of maintaining the Xaan's residences and palaces.
The Zu'u'ngar kingdom comprised several large aimags, each of which was ruled by a prince. The possession of each of these princes was called an angi. By the end of the 18th century there were 21 angi in Zu'u'ngar, of which six were located in Coros aimag, four in Do'rvo'd aimag, one in Xoshuud, eight in Xoid aimag and two in Torguud aimag.
In the first half of the 18th century the total population of Zu'u'ngar was about 600-thousand, consisting of some 20-thousand families. The Oirad princes usually came from the seven aimags of Coros, Xoshuud, Torguud, Xoid, Zhired, Shars and Maxas, with Coros princes - including the Do'rvo'd, who had branched off from the latter - dominating both in terms of number and influence. The Coros princes were descended from Duba of the Bo'rte Chono lineage, while the Xoshuud princes were descended from Chingis Xaan's younger brother Xasar and the Torguud princes from the Xereids' Togoril Xaan.
Buddhist monks made up part of the Zu'u'ngar elite class; in most cases they came from noble families and were in charge of governing religious and monastic activities, possessed land allocations and had a certain number of herders to keep animals on their behalf. By the 17th century there were temples in every aimag of Zu'u'ngar, with some aimags having several; the most prominent of these was the Coros Altan Gulz Xu'ree. During the 18th century more than 6000 monks resided in Zu'u'ngar, making up one percent of the total population; the tax-exempt status of monks encouraged many to take up residence in monasteries. The territories controlled by major temples and major Buddhist figures were called zhas, each of which was governed by a Zaisan, who was in charge of collecting taxes on behalf of the lamas. There were nine independent zhas territories in Zu'u'ngar, five of which were established shortly after the founding of Zu'u'ngar, and the remaining four of which were created at the beginning of the 18th century.
The death of Galdanceren Xaan resulted in a fight for the throne, which was held successively for brief periods - but without major achievement - by Galdanceren's sons Ceveendorzhnamzhil and Lamdarzhaa, and by his younger brother Davaach. In 1755-1758 the Zu'u'ngar kingdom was conquered by Manchu invaders.